An Embedded X-Ray Source Shines through the Aspherical AT 2018cow: Revealing the Inner Workings of the Most Luminous Fast-evolving Optical Transients

Abstract

We present the first extensive radio to γ-ray observations of a fast-rising blue optical transient, AT 2018cow, over its first ∼100 days. AT 2018cow rose over a few days to a peak luminosity L <SUB>pk</SUB> ∼ 4 × 10<SUP>44</SUP> erg s<SUP>-1</SUP>, exceeding that of superluminous supernovae (SNe), before declining as L ∝ t <SUP>-2</SUP>. Initial spectra at δt ≲ 15 days were mostly featureless and indicated large expansion velocities v ∼ 0.1c and temperatures reaching T ∼ 3 × 10<SUP>4</SUP> K. Later spectra revealed a persistent optically thick photosphere and the emergence of H and He emission features with v ∼ 4000 km s<SUP>-1</SUP> with no evidence for ejecta cooling. Our broadband monitoring revealed a hard X-ray spectral component at E ≥ 10 keV, in addition to luminous and highly variable soft X-rays, with properties unprecedented among astronomical transients. An abrupt change in the X-ray decay rate and variability appears to accompany the change in optical spectral properties. AT 2018cow showed bright radio emission consistent with the interaction of a blast wave with v <SUB>sh</SUB> ∼ 0.1c with a dense environment (\dot{M}∼ {10}<SUP>-3</SUP>-{10}<SUP>-4</SUP> {M}<SUB>☉ </SUB>{yr}}<SUP>-1</SUP> for v <SUB> w </SUB> = 1000 km s<SUP>-1</SUP>). While these properties exclude <SUP>56</SUP>Ni-powered transients, our multiwavelength analysis instead indicates that AT 2018cow harbored a “central engine,” either a compact object (magnetar or black hole) or an embedded internal shock produced by interaction with a compact, dense circumstellar medium. The engine released ∼10<SUP>50</SUP>-10<SUP>51.5</SUP> erg over ∼10<SUP>3</SUP>-10<SUP>5</SUP> s and resides within low-mass fast-moving material with equatorial-polar density asymmetry (M <SUB>ej,fast</SUB> ≲ 0.3 M <SUB>☉</SUB>). Successful SNe from low-mass H-rich stars (like electron-capture SNe) or failed explosions from blue supergiants satisfy these constraints. Intermediate-mass black holes are disfavored by the large environmental density probed by the radio observations.